When all of Europe was dominated by the Catholic Church they had an official tradition (from Aristotle) that all the celestial bodies were perfect spheres like crystals that revolved around the Earth. They were simply lacking information that came when a telescope was invented that proved them wrong. So what was "known" by all as absolute truth for more than a thousand years became falsehood in a moment.
Previous to the late Nineteenth Century there was a perfectly logical explanation for the spoilage of food -- oxidation. If food was exposed to oxygen there was a chemical reaction that took place. Their observations were explained very well. Removing all the oxygen by canning food prevented spoilage. And if they used certain chemicals such as salt, vinegar and sugar they could prevent the chemical reaction. Also, during this time it was thought that illness came from the cold, bad air, or evil spirits, among many other theories. The invention of a microscope opened up a whole world of microorganisms that changed all of these theories. Thus, though we can have a theory that explains all of our observations, we cannot know that we are able to observe everything. We don't know what we're missing. A small change in technology could give us new knowledge that could change what we think we know.
Our current "scientific" theories are doomed to the same fate, in spite of all we "know." Though "Natural Selection" or "Evolution" explains much of our observations of life on Earth, there is still a great deal we don't know so these theories are open to becoming falsehood with the discovery of just one bit of information. For example, if it were found that there is no way DNA could be made without proteins, and there is no way for protein to be made without DNA; or, if random mutations could never make a useful structure or function, then the theory of evolution by natural selection would be impossible. Also, the "Big Bang" theory of the beginning of our known Universe also has a number of gaps that we know, as well as infinite possibilities that we don't yet know. Just one bit of information could render the whole theory invalid. Every gap in our knowledge leaves us open to the infinity of possibilities that exist beyond our senses, technology, or understanding. In order to be able to know what is missing we would have to know everything. Thus, there is nothing that we could be sure of until we had a knowledge of absolutely everything.
How, then, can we know anything?
God knows everything; He is omniscient. If He were to tell us something, we would know something. Since God knows everything, then we could be sure of anything He tells us. In fact, the only way we can know something is if the information comes from God. If we are sure He knows everything, and is willing to share His knowledge, then we must experiment on the word of God.
God is omniscient
Multiple scriptures attest to the omniscience of God. “O how great the holiness of our God! For he knoweth all things, and there is not anything save he knows it.” (2 Nephi 9:20) If there was one blade of grass that came up without His knowledge he would not be omniscient. There is no time with God, all things are present. He knows every particle of the Earth and all things that have happened or will happen. He is a God of truth, as the brother of Jared attested: “thou art a God of truth.” (Ether 3:12) "And truth is knowledge of things as they are, and as they were, and as they are to come." (D&C 93:24) Thus, God knows all things.
God can and will give knowledge
Since God has this knowledge, He can teach it to us, His children, if we desire. He promises to give to those who ask. "If any of you lack wisdom, let him ask of God, that giveth to all men liberally, and upbraideth not; and it shall be given him." (James 1:5) The promise that we will be given what we desire is repeated multiple times in the scriptures.
We start with belief. "Believe in God; believe that he is, and that he created all things, both in heaven and in earth; believe that he has all wisdom, and all power, both in heaven and in earth; believe that man doth not comprehend all the things which the Lord can comprehend." (Mosiah 4:9) In other words, we must acknowledge that God knows everything, and we know nothing. This puts us in a position to learn.
How we know
When we do what God says, we can come to know things. "If any man will do his will, he shall know of the doctrine, whether it be of God, or whether I speak of myself." (John 7:17) If it is of God, then it is always true.
Keeping the commandments allows us to receive information. "For if you keep my commandments you shall receive of his fullness, and be glorified in me as I am in the Father; therefore, I say unto you, you shall receive grace for grace." (D&C 93:20) This is a succinct way of explaining how one can receive grace. By keeping the commandments of God we are giving grace. As we give grace we grow, learn, and thus receive glory from God. We get grace as we give grace, thus receiving grace for grace. The system is perfect. We come to know the doctrine as we do His will, or keep His commandments. How can we keep the commandments if we don't know what they are. This is why "It is impossible for a man to be saved in ignorance." (D&C 131:6)
Line upon line
We come to know all truth in the same way we learn anything, little-by-little. We accept understanding from God, and this allows us to understand more. If we wanted to be a mathematician we would have to start with the basics of manipulating numbers: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, before we can do calculus. This works the same with truth. "That which is of God is light; and he that receiveth light, and continueth in God, receiveth more light; and that light groweth brighter and brighter until the perfect day." (D&C 50:24) "The perfect day" refers to knowing everything, just as God does.
Even Jesus Christ had to learn little-by-little. "And I, John, saw that he received not of the fulness at the first, but received grace for grace; and he received not of the fulness at first, but continued from grace to grace, until he received a fulness." (D&C 93:12, 13) "Fulness" means "everything." As Jesus gained knowledge little-by-little so we do the same.
Scientific testing brings knowledge
Alma explains it this way: "But behold, if ye will awake and arouse your faculties, even to an experiment upon my words, and exercise a particle of faith, yea, even if ye can no more than desire to believe, let this desire work in you, even until ye believe in a manner that ye can give place for a portion of my words." (Alma 32:27) We start with a belief, and if not that, then a desire to believe. We take this desire and "exercise" it by "do[ing] His will." Then we develop faith as we keep the commandments because we gain evidence that it is true -- we "know of the doctrine." This is grace. We cannot, however, receive this grace unless we put in the effort to keep the commandments, or putting in our own grace. This system works with every commandment. For example, if we want to know if God is true to His word we can test him. He even tells us to "prove" or test Him on the principle of tithing. "Bring ye all the tithes into the storehouse, that there may be meat in mine house, and prove me now herewith, saith the LORD of hosts, if I will not open you the windows of heaven, and pour you out a blessing, that there shall not be room enough to receive it." (Mal 3:10) If we pay tithing then we will come to know that the principle of tithing is true because the Lord will bless us by "open[ing] the windows of Heaven." We have to put in the effort, or grace, first, then we can receive His Grace; thus, we receive grace for grace. Once we receive that grace from God, we can say, "I know..."
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